ACCOUNTING SYSTEM INSIGHTS

AIS – Final Study Chapter Highlights Chapter 1 – ACCOUNTING SYSTEM INSIGHTS 1. Enterprise system – A system that supports business activities throughout the enterprise, including inputs, processing, and outputs 2. Integrated enterprise system – Shares data across functional areas within the enterprise 3. Business processes – Related activities performed by an enterprise to create value by transforming input into output 4.Value chain – An organizing framework for business processes, beginning with vendors and ending with customers Baseline accounting system – A model that provides an enterprise-wide view of the firm`s accounting system 1. Transaction cycles – Accounting transactions related to specific business processes (1) Purchasing cycle – Transactions related to purchasing items from vendors (2) Payroll cycles – Transactions with employees (3) Sales cycle – Exchange or transactions between an enterprise and its customers 2.Vendors module – A module related to purchasing goods and services 3. Customers module – A module related to selling the customer a product or service 4. Employee module – A module related to the payroll cycle 5. Banking module – A module that involves cash received and cash paid 6. Financial module – A module that includes adjusting and correcting entries (1) Adjusting entries – Entries to bring accounts up to date at year end (2) Correcting entries – Entries to correct errors (3) Closing entries – Zeros out income and expense accounts at year end 7.Reports module – A module that relates to output from the accounting system (1) Financial reports – Reports that include a company`s income statement, balance sheet, and statement of cash flows (2) Tax reports – Reports used when filling federal, state, and local returns (3) Management reports – Reports prepared to assist managers in making decisions (4) Sustainability reports – Reports used to evaluate an enterprise`s sustainability performance What is the importance and value of information as an asset? Today, the value of information assets for some business exceeds the value of other assets, such as land and buildings What is the role of the accounting system within the larger enterprise system? * The accounting system spans the entire value chain of an enterprise, tracking transaction information from the purchase of items from vendors through the sale of products or services to customers. Business processes are associated with the related accounting transactions known as transaction cycles. Also read  Modules 9 & 10The purchasing cycle consists of employee and payroll transactions. The sales cycle involves exchanges or transactions between an enterprise and its customers. In addition to the accounting system, other modules or subsystem can include supply chain management (SCM), operations/production system (OPS), human resource management (HRM), and customer relationship management (CRM). What are the database essentials that today’s accounting professional needs to know? 1) A field is a piece of data, such as customer first name (2) A record is a collection of related fields, such as a customer record (3) A table is a collection of related records, such as a CUSTOMER table (4) A database is a collection of related tables, such as an accounting database (5) A database form is a computer-based form for entering data into the database (6) A database query is used to extract data from a database, such as searching for a customer’s account balance. (7) A dat abase report is a computer-based output to display What are the SDLC (Software Development Life Cycle) phases? The system development life cycle organizes the activities involved in developing a new system into the following six distinct phases: (1) Plan the system project including scheduling, budgeting, and staffing (2) Analyze the new system requirements, such as what reports are required and what data needs to be collected by the system (3) Design business processes and databases for the new system (4) Build/buy and test databases and computer programs for the new system (5) Install new IT hardware, software, and databases 6) Deploy the new system, using the system on an ongoing basis and maintaining and updating it as necessary. Why is it important to safeguard information assets? * To protect information assets, organizations implement security and controls to prevent fraud, unauthorized access, modification, destruction, or disclosure. Internal control is the set of policies and procedures enterprises use to safeguard assets, including information assets, and to prevent and detect errors. What are the three functions of an accounting system in today’s business environment? 1) Collecting, recording, and storing financial and accounting data (2) Providing financial analytics and business intelligence for improved decision making and business performance (3) Safeguarding information assets stored in accounting systems using security, controls, and risk management Chapter 2 – ACCOUNTING DATABASES 1. Operational database – Databases used to store data related to business operations and transactions 2. Data warehouse – Stores data from a variety of sources and is used for business intelligence 3. Database administrator (DBA) – Responsible for managing the enterprise’s databases 4.Intersection table – Placed at the junction of two tables to eliminate a many-to-many relationship 5. Composite primary key – Used when more than one field is required to uniquely identify a record 6. Normalization – A process for removing database anomalies or problems 7. Database integrity – Ensures that the database contains accurate, valid data Rule 1: Entity integrity Each record in the database must have a unique identifier. No two records in the database can have the same primary key value. Rule 2: Primary key integrity The primary key value cannot be null (empty).Rule 3: Domain integrity The field values must be from a pre-defined domain. Rule 4: Referential integrity Data referenced and stored in related tables must be consistent across the database. DBMS is a software used to (1) Create database tables (2) Transfer data from the accounting software to the database (3) Update data in the database (4) Delete data from the database (5) Sort database tables (6) Run queries What data is stored in accounting databases? * Organizations store data about assets, liabilities, operations, tran sactions, employees, customers, vendors, and more in databases.Accounting databases needs to be well structured, redundancy-free, consistent, and current What are the three tiers in accounting system architecture? (1) Database tier: The back-end accounting database stores accounting data in database tables. A back-end database management system (DBMS) sorts, stores, inserts, updates, and deletes accounting data and runs queries (2) Application tier: Accounting software applications interact with the DBMS to access the back-end accounting database (3) User tier: The user tier consists of the interface appearing on the accountant’s computer screen.The user interface consists of database forms and reports. What are enterprise databases? * Enterprise databases used by an enterprise for business purposes can be considered as one of two types: internal databases or external databases (1) Internal databases are databases in which the data belongs to the organization. Internal databa ses consist of two varieties: operational databases and data warehouses. Operational databases, such as an accounting database, store enterprise transactions. Data warehouses store data from a variety of sources. 2) External databases are databases containing data collected by other organizations. What problems can result from poorly designed databases? * Poorly designed databases may contain database problems or anomalies, such as problems with inserting, updating, and deleting data. This can result in inaccurate, unreliable accounting data. * Three types of database anomalies (problems) are DUI: Deletion, Update, Insertion What are the steps used to build an accounting database? (1) Identify and build database tables (2) Identify and enter fields in each database table (3) Select the primary key for each table 4) Identify and build relationships among database tables, removing any many-to-many relationships by creating intersection tables Chapter 3 – ACCOUNTING INTERFACE 1. Graphical User Interface (GUI) – User interface containing images and icons 2. Data validation – Tools used to minimize data entry errors, such as drop-down lists 3. Real-time reports – Reports that provide up-to-the-minute data without a time lag 4. Live reports – Reports that provide up-to-the-minute data continuously 5. Structured query language (SQL) – Code used to search and retrieve data 6.Query Builder Tools – Streamlines query development What is the role of the accounting system interface? * The accounting system user interface plays an important role in entering accounting data and retrieving accounting information. The accountant views the interface on the screen, and the RDBMS and database are behind the screen. The accounting software interface interacts with the RDBMS using database forms, queries, and reports. Features of a well-designed interface include user-friendly, effortless navigation, and customizable preferences. Wha t is the role of database forms? Database forms are commonly used to input data into accounting system. The database forms are frequently designed to look like commonly used and familiar items, such as an invoice or a check. What is the role of database reports? * The output of the accounting system is typically displayed in a report format. The report displayed on the user’s computer screen is actually a database report that is formatted to meet accounting requirements. The database report uses information from the database to populate the report. What is the role of database queries? * One component of the user interface is retrieval or query.Sometimes the interface will call this a search and provide a form where the search question can be entered. In other instances, a query may be run to prepare a report, retrieving data from the database to enter into the database report that appears on the user’s computer screen. Well-designed database forms are designed to save time and minimize data entry errors. A few general guidelines for database form design include the following: (1) Enter data once (2) Use data validation (3) Enable auto entry (4) Mirror paper forms (5) Design user-friendly forms (6) Implement appropriate security Chapter 4 – ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS AND B.PROCESSES 1. Data flow diagrams (DFDs) – a technique used to document business processes using agent, event, data store, and data flow symbols 2. Data flows – shows how data enter, moves, and exits a system 3. Data stores – a database table represented by an open rectangle 4. Events – a process represented by a rounded rectangle 5. Agents – a person or department represented by a square symbol 6. External agent – an agent outside the enterprise 7. Internal agent – employees within the organization 8. Event-agent-database (EAD) table – each row in this table corresponds to an event in a DFD 9.DFD Fragment – a DFD of a single event 10. Black hole – a DFD error that occurs when data goes into a process but no data exists 11. Gray hole – a DFD error that occurs when the input data does not correspond to the output data 12. Miracle – a DFD error that occurs when there is no input to a process The approach to reading a DFD is to use the following four steps (1) Identify the agents (internal and external) (2) Identify events (3) Identify database tables (4) Trace the data flows How are accounting systems developed today? * Today, most accounting systems are developed in two stages.First, baseline accounting software is selected. Then the accounting software is customized to meet the enterprise’s specific needs. How is customization of accounting systems documented? * Customizing an accounting system involves documenting the specific needs of the enterprise using data flow diagrams to provide a detailed view of the enterprise’s business processes. Each module of the b aseline model can be customized to meet the enterprise’s needs. Additional modules might also be needed to provide the required customization, such as a production module to track manufacturing costs.Chapter 5 – BUSINESS PROCESSES 1. Gap Analysis refers to analyzing the gap between the baseline modules and the customization required to meet enterprise-specific needs. 2. Big Bang refers to when all system modules are built and implemented for the entire enterprise at the same time. 3. Stages refers to when modules or locations for a new system are built and implemented stage by stage instead of all at once. How are business processes documented? * The baseline accounting system can be customized using data flow diagrams (DFDs) to document the enterprise’s business processes.What is gap analysis? * A gap analysis identifies the gap between the selected baseline system, such as SAP, and the customization required by the specific enterprise. What is the difference b etween the big bang approach and stages approach to customization? * The two approaches to customization are big bang and stages. The big bang approach is used when all the modules are built and implemented for the entire enterprise at the same time. The stages approach involves completing modules or locations stage by stage instead of all at once. What is a workflow management system? Workflow management systems automate workflow by automatically forwarding the electronic document to the next step in the business process. Chapter 6 – INTEGRATED ENTERPRISE SYSTEMS 1. Order-to-cash – corresponds to the sales cycle 2. Procure-to-pay – corresponds to the purchasing cycle 3. Spaghetti code – programming code used to connect stand-alone systems 4. Three-tier architecture – when an enterprise system uses layers of IT components: enterprise database, application, and client computers 5. Firewall – software programs on a router that monitor network traffic 6.Business process management (BPM) – transforming business processes to improve efficiency Top Reasons for Failed ERPs include the following: (1) Unrealistic budget. Underestimated costs. Overestimated benefits. (2) Unrealistic schedule. Not enough time allowed for project completion. (3) Not a good fit. User requirements are not net. Baseline system not a good fit with business processes. (4) Too much change. Failure to educate employees on changes to expect. Lack of adequate change management. (5) Lack of project champion at the top. Commitment by top management is lacking to champion the project.What are advantages of an integrated enterprise system? * The integrated enterprise system offers many advantages over the functional silo approach to enterprise systems. The accounting functions are integrated into the larger enterprise system, permitting accounting to share data with other functional areas and better coordinate activities. What are challenges associated with an integrated enterprise system? * Challenges of an integrated enterprise system include business processes that may need to be redesigned and managing the changes required by the new system. How is data entered in an integrated enterprise system? Database forms that relate to business process activities permit users to enter data once into the IES and have the data shared throughout the enterprise, eliminating the need for different functional areas to rekey the same data. How does an integrated enterprise system relate to the accounting system? * Integrated enterprise system use a modular approach that is consistent with the baseline accounting system model. The basic module names may vary but the functions are basically the same. Integrated enterprise systems integrate accounting with other modules for an enterprise.Customer and vendor systems can also be integrated. Chapter 10 – FRAUD AND INTERNAL CONTROL 1. Entity-level IT controls – processes, organization s tructure, and leadership for IT to support an organization’s business strategy and objectives, such as internal audits 2. IT general controls – controls that apply to IT services in general and ensure continued IT operation and availability, such as change and access controls 3. Application controls – controls embedded within business process applications, such as accounting software controls A.Classification by the control objectives specified in the COSO internal control framework: i. Operation controls – controls to ensure that operations are completed appropriately, such as the timing of cash disbursements to ensure that late fees are avoided ii. Financial controls – controls to ensure that external financial reports are prepared on a timely basis in compliance with laws, regulation, or contractual agreements iii. Compliance controls – controls to maintain confidentiality of information in accordance with all applicable laws and regulati ons B.Classification by how the process is completed: iv. Manual controls – controls performed without the assistance of technology v. Automated controls – controls performed automatically by computers 1. Input controls – controls over data entered into the system 2. Processing controls – controls to ensure that amounts have been processed appropriately 3. Output controls – controls to ensure that reports are distributed only to appropriate users vi. Hybrid controls – a combination of manual and automated controls What is SOX and how does it affect the accounting system? Sarbanes-Oxley (SOX) legislation resulted from the accounting scandals of 2002. This legislation requires organizations to use recognized framework for internal controls. As a result, many organizations adopted COSO’s Internal Control – Integrated Framework and the COBIT framework for IT controls What is IT control architecture? * IT control architecture is a b lueprint for IT controls in the organization. This blueprint shows that internal control impacts IT at three levels within the organization resulting in three levels of IT controls: * Entity-level IT controls Application controls * IT general controls How can control weaknesses be documented? (1) Build a DFD (2) Document preventive and selective controls on the DFD (3) Document control HotSpots on the DFD Fraud and abuse can be classified into three broad categories: (1) Corruption, such as bribery (2) Misappropriation of assets, including theft of cash, fraudulent disbursements, or stealing merchandise (3) Fraudulent financial reporting, such as misstating financial statements in order to meet earning targets. Three elements required to prove fraud are the followings: 1) A material false statement is made with the intent to deceive (2) A victim relies upon the false statement (3) The victim incurs damages The fraud triangle depicts the three conditions that typically must exist in order for a fraud to be perpetrated (1) Motive – reason for committing the fraud, such as financial difficulties (2) Opportunity – access to the asset or financial statements in order to carry out the fraud (3) Means – knowledge or skills that permit the perpetrator to commit the crime Internal Control is a process, effected by an entity’s board of directors, management, and other personnel.This process is designed to provide reasonable assurance regarding the achievement of objectives in effectiveness and efficiency of operations, reliability of financial reporting, and compliance with applicable laws and regulations. SOX (Sarbanes-Oxley Act) emphasize a strong system of internal control as a means of avoiding Enron-sized accounting frauds. SOX Requirements to remember (1) Section 302. Corporate responsibility for financial reports (2) Section 404. Management assessment of internal controls (3) Section 806.Protection for employees of publicly traded comp anies who provide evidence of fraud (4) Section 906. Corporate responsibility for financial reports Audit and Internal Controls (SOX) (1) Audit of internal control – tests of controls to obtain evidence that internal control over financial reporting has operated effectively (2) Audit of financial statements – tests of controls to assess risk and substantive procedures to collect evidence regarding the accuracy, completeness (3) IT audit – audit of IT controls 4) Integrated audit – integrates an audit of internal control with an audit of financial statements There are two types of deficiencies that may be found in internal control over financial reporting: (1) Material weakness – deficiency that results in a reasonable possibility that a material misstatement of financial statements will not be prevented or detected on a timely basis (2) Significant deficiency – a deficiency in internal control over financial reporting that is less severe tha n a material weakness COSO (Committee of Sponsoring Organization of the Treadway Commission) Internal Control Objectives 1) Effectiveness and efficiency of operations (2) Reliability of financial reporting (3) Compliance with laws and regulation Internal Control Components (1) Control environment – control environment factors include integrity and ethical values, importance of board directors, management philosophy and operating style, organization structure, commitment to financial reporting competencies, authority and responsibility, and human resources (2) Risk assessment – involves identifying, analyzing, and managing risks that affect a company’s ability to record, process, summarize, and report financial data properly.Risk assessment control objectives include the following: A. Importance of financial reporting objectives B. Identification and analysis of financial reporting risks C. Assessment of fraud risk (3) Control activities – include policies and procedures to mitigate risks including financial, operational, and compliance controls. Control activities include the following: D. Segregation of duties – to divide authorization, recording, and asset custody among different individuals E. Independent reconciliations of assets and accounting records – such as bank statement reconciliations and inventory reconciliations F.Physical controls – to provide for physical security of assets, such as security cameras and restricted access to corporate buildings G. IT controls – to ensure appropriate information processing, authorization, and data integrity. (E. g. Data validation) (4) Information and communication – includes the accounting system for identifying, recording, processing, and reporting transactions and financial data. An organization’s system produces reports, containing operational, financial, and compliance information.Internal control principles related to this component inclu de information technology, information needs, information control, management communication, upstream communication, board communication, and communication with external parties (5) Monitoring – involves assessing internal controls as well as the process for taking corrective action if needed. Effective monitoring includes: H. Ongoing monitoring – such as controls over purchasing I. Separate evaluations – such as an internal audit that assesses internal controls. J.Upstream communication to report internal control deficiencies COBIT (Control Objectives for Information and related Technology) Three Dimensions (1) IT Resources can be divided into the following four categories: A. Application – consists of manual and programmed procedures to process information B. Information – includes structured and unstructured data in any form, such as text, graphics, pictures, audio and video. Data is input, processed, and output by the system C. Infrastructure à ¢â‚¬â€œ refers to IT technology including hardware and software. It may also include physical structures, such as a data center facility D.People – includes staff members as well as their knowledge and skills to plan, organize, acquire, implement, deliver, support, monitor, and evaluate IT processes and systems (2) IT Processes deliver information, run applications, and use infrastructure and people to accomplish IT goals in light of business requirements. IT processes are grouped into the following four domains E. Plan and Organize (PO) domain – relates to IT strategy and tactics to contribute to attaining business goals F. Acquire and Implement (AI) domain – identifies, acquires (built or bought), and implements IT solutions.Also ensures that the SDLC phases and activities are used when upgrading and modifying current systems G. Deliver and Support (DS) domain – concerned with the delivery of IT services. Encompasses IT operations, security and training . Assures the continued support and maintenance of these services H. Monitor and Evaluate (ME) domain – monitors IT processes for compliance with control requirements. Includes management oversight of control processes as well as independent assurance services provided by internal and external audits (3) Business Requirements (Information Criteria) I.Three criteria relate to the information security: confidentiality, integrity, availability (CIA) J. For the remaining four criteria, COBIT relies upon definitions used by COSO’s Internal Control – Integrated Framework (Effectiveness, Efficiency, Reliability, Compliance) Chapter 11 – CYBERSECURITY What are the 10 domains of cybersecurity? (1) Legal, regulations, compliance, and investigations (2) Information security and risk management (3) Security architecture and design (4) Telecommunications, network, and Internet security (5) Control access (6) Operations security (7) Physical and environmental security 8) Application security (9) Business continuity and disaster recovery (10) Cryptography What is the scope of cybersecurity in the accounting system? * Cybersecurity in an enterprise is not limited to just guarding against hackers and cyberattacks. It involves many aspects of enterprise operations, including how you train and educate your employees about security awareness to safeguarding information assets, how to implement new technologies in a security conscious manner, how to maintain backups in order to recover and continue business operations, and how to provide the highest level of security in a cost-effective wayWhy is encryption important in securing accounting data? * For accounting purposes, encryption provides an especially valuable tool offering increased data integrity and confidentiality. Encryption can be used for accounting data in transit and for accounting data stored in the database. If an attacker is successful in penetrating the enterprise security and reaches t he database, encryption of the stored data is an additional line of defense *Refer to Lecture PPT slides for more detailed information regarding key terms.Chapter 12 – THE RISK INTELLIGENT ENTERPRISE What is a risk intelligent enterprise? * The risk intelligent enterprise moves beyond security and controls to managing risk and then to using risk to create value What is the enterprise risk management (ERM) framework? * The ERM framework offers guidance to enterprises implementing enterprise risk management. ERM units may consist of entity-level units, divisions, business units, and/or subsidiaries * The four ERM objectives are Strategic – relate to goals that support the entity’s mission * Operational – relate to the effective and efficient use of the entity’s resources * Reporting – relate to the reliability of the enterprise’s reporting, both internal and external * Compliance – relates to the entity’s compliance with a ll applicable laws and regulations * The eight ERM components consist of * Internal environment – involves the risk management philosophy of the enterprise, including the tone set by top management. Risk resilience, risk appetite, risk tolerance, integrity, and ethical values also affect the nternal environment * Objective setting – setting objectives that are consistent with the entity’s mission and risk appetite * Event identification – involves identifying potential events that might affect the entity. Events can be either internal events or external events that might affect the entity’s ability to achieve objectives. * Risk assessment – the process of assessing the extent to which events would impact an entity’s ability to achieve its objectives (impact/likelihood) * Risk response (avoidance/reduction/sharing/acceptance) * Control activities Information and communication * Monitoring What is spreadsheet risk management? * A signif icant risk for many enterprises is the widespread use of spreadsheets with limited controls. A spreadsheet risk management program includes using access and change controls with spreadsheets in order to be SOX compliant Chapter 13 – ACCOUNTING SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT * This chapter explains stages of SDLC (Software Development Life Cycle) and SDM (Software Development Methodologies). Refer to Lecture PPT slides for more information.

Better to be Feared or Loved? Essay

In The Prince, Niccolà ² Machiavelli goes into depth about how it is better to be feared than loved. He states that â€Å"Well, one would like to be both; but it’s difficult for one person to be both feared and loved, and when a choice has to be made it is safer to be feared.† I disagree with Machiavelli that it is better to be feared than to be loved. Being feared eventually wears off while being loved is always a feeling that will be there. There are many reasons why I disagree with Machiavelli. First of all, it is better to be loved than feared. Sometimes being feared will help someone get what they want, but with fear, feelings of resentment and hate can be found. It will also nurture subversive thoughts of revenge and other malicious intent. Just like in the TV show Gossip Girl, the main characters Blair and Sarina go back and forth seeking revenge over each other because one has more than the other. They are always in a constant battle against each other. Fear mu st be used in a tightly controlled and insistent fashion or it will fail. To be loved, however, nurtures caring, loyalty, kindness, and other positive binding and giving emotions. It can spawn jealousy in some, but overall it is a much better relationship to have with other people. Fear can cause people to retaliate and eventually disappear. In the article, â€Å"Leadership and the Fear Factor†, the authors state â€Å"Emotions like love and fear, trust and mistrust, can play a significant role in whether a leader gains followers.† This concludes that typically leaders or anyone in the society gain followers by having trust and love. On a more of personal relationship, I would rather be loved, because to have everyone show fear towards each other, would mean you have no intimate relations with anyone and that is not true living. Franklin P. Jones once said, â€Å"Love doesn’t make the world go round. Love is what makes the ride worthwhile.† It is the most powerful feeling to feel loved. I know this by having such a supportive family. My family is always there through thick and thin and are always showing their love and compassion. I also know how it feels to be truly hated. In middle school, there was this girl named Hunter Welch and no matter how hard I tried, she always hated me. So on further note, I think love is a way more powerful feeling. It does seem noticeable however, that someone would want to be feared if they are in a high position or authority. People who are in high authority are often driven by those who rule by fear. However, in a  more personal relationship, it is best to be loved. In the article â€Å"Connect, Then Lead†, the authors gained my full attention. They question the readers, â€Å"Which is better, being loveable or being strong?† This question involves people who are on a high authority. The authors say, â€Å"Leaders who project strength before establishing trust run the risk of eliciting fear, and along with it a host of dysfunctional behaviors.† By this, they mean people ruin the leadership effectiveness. The authors then say, â€Å"The chances that a manager who is strongly disliked will be consi dered a good leader are only about one in two thousand.† Just by these statements, it is best to say that being feared rather than loved does not get people very far. Being feared can cause a mass of destruction, but being loved by people can cause a more healthy relationship between others and the society. In conclusion, people who are loved are more valued than being feared. Whether people are of a high authority or just a common citizen, it is better for people to be loved than feared. Having hatred towards others or yourself will only cause loneliness and heartache. For example, Adolf Hitler, the dictator of Nazi Germany during World War II, may have had many people support him. However, Hitler caused only hatred and brought a lot of destruction. On a further note, being loved is better than being feared. Love has a stronger connection than fear.

Reconstruction Amendments Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Reconstruction Amendments - Essay Example The reconstruction amendments of the US constitution comprise the 13th, 14th and 15th amendments. The amendments were adopted just after the end of the civil war in the period between 1865 and 1870 according to Franklin (3). The amendments were necessary for the reconstruction of the America’s Southern states. The Thirteenth Amendment was influential in the abolishment of slave trade. The succeeding amendment stipulates privileges, immunities equal protection as well as due process On the other hand, the Fifteenth Amendment gives the right to vote people of all color, race and those previously held in servitude. The fourteenth amendment of the United States constitution was done in 1868 in the month of July. The ratification of the fourteenth Amendment was not accepted by all and it had a lot of contentions (Franklin 11). The southern state legislature was among those that refused the ratification of the amendment. This ratification led to the introduction of the Reconstructio n Acts. The existing states governments were ignored and in return military governments were imposed. This was followed by the establishment of civil governments, hence the ratification. The reason for ratification was significant in several ways which are implied in its clauses. The first clause is the citizenship clause. It is important as it defines citizenship overruling the decision which denied the blacks the right to become citizens of the United States (Collins 13).

Management environment of Kuwait Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Management environment of Kuwait - Assignment Example This paper illustrates that management environment is how the management programs of an organization are organized in a systematic and comprehensive manner. It includes the structure of the organization, the resources, and the planning for developing, implementation and maintenance of a better maintenance policy for the well-being of the organization in question. The management environment is aimed at ensuring a smooth running of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling in the organization. It is upon the management to see to it that the organization reaches its goals and objectives, to ensure that it maintains a competitive advantage. It is important for organizations to join collaborations and keep good relationships with other countries. Most of the organizations in Kuwait are complex and it is for the managers to manage and reduce complexity to structure organizations. It is an acronym for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. The strengths and weaknesses are i nternal factors while opportunities and threats are external factors. It is an important tool to audit and analyze the strategic position of the business and its overall environment. It is aimed at identifying the best strategies capable of aligning the organizational resources and capabilities to the environmental requirements of the firm’s operation. It is aimed at evaluating the internal potential and limitations and the probable opportunities and threats that originate from the external environment. It is able to view all the positive and the negative factors both inside and outside the firm that affects the success of the organization. Studying the environment is capable of forecasting the changing trends and helps in the decision making of the organization. It is a concept that is evident in the marketing principles. It enables companies to enable the tracking of the environment in which they are operating in or are planning to venture in. It is an acronym for political , economic, social, technological, legal and environmental factors often use it. It ensures that the business environment is viewed from various angles that one needs to keep track while contemplating on the idea or plan in question. It is crucial for an industry since it defines what the company should do and accounts for the goals and strategies of the organization.

Unemployment in Mexico and USA and Comparison between them Essay

Unemployment in Mexico and USA and Comparison between them - Essay Example This topic is of high interest as it will help in analyzing the overall economic conditions of two important economies; the United States and Mexico. A comparison between the Unemployment levels of these two countries will also be presented. Unemployment represents the number of people that are not working or jobless (Wessels, 2000). During the recession, the Unemployment level of country increases as more people lose their jobs (Mankiw, 2009). The global recession of 2007-2008 resulted in a large number of people to lose their jobs in different parts of the world. Unemployment level was showing a decreasing trend internationally, as presented in the graphs below until the economic recession that hit the world global market. From 2007, the unemployment level of the world increased drastically; however, it has decreased in the last two years or so.The unemployment level in the United States and Mexico also increased drastically after the recession. However unemployment level increased more in the USA than in Mexico.Data will be collected from different renowned websites such as World Bank and other authentic published reports. The research will be quantitative and qualitative. Literature review section will cover the qualitative data and analysis section will cover the quantitative data. The relationship between the unemployment levels of these two countries will be analyzed, and a comparison will be presented. Statistical tools will be applied to analyze the unemployment level.

Racial conflict Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Racial conflict - Research Paper Example The management of racial conflict has in the recent past turned out to be a severe challenge in the post-cold war era. Recent years has witnessed manifestation of racial conflicts in different ways including: intimidation, property vandalism, verbal threat, ethic/racial jokes, as well as physical violence. Racial conflicts have as well received infinite critics from various entities due to its long term harm to victims’ physical, psychological, social, and emotional wellbeing that is brought about by body mistreatment, verbal harm, and the impacts of consistent threats (Enrique189). It appears that, some of this racial unrest is brought about by inadvertent and intentional physical verbal and non-verbal actions. Racial conflict can be defined as a situation that explains either a misunderstanding or planned racial discrimination and harassment that leads to physical distress and interpersonal altercations in the affected population. Peaceful coexistence between different racia l groups is extremely critical for sustainable political, social, and economic development. Lack of peaceful coexistence amongst different racial group may lead to consistent racial tension, hostility, and conflicts that lead to destruction of properties and loss of lives. To necessitate global uniformed economic development and growth, maintenance of global peace is paramount and inevitable. All plays are therefore expected to step up and initiate mechanisms that can offset animosity experienced among different racial groups. Additionally, to realize the relevant change for social development, individuals ought to be committed toward bringing the required change in the society. The essay below therefore seeks to persuade individuals to take the necessary actions to actively defy racial conflict in the society. Due to racial conflicts, societies in different countries are divided; more that 20 million lives have so far been lost, future generation is as well at risk of extinction an d there is increased racial based hatred and fear in the world. Racial conflict has become a global economic development predicament that requires instant action to minimize its effect on the contemporary society. Based on the assessable global statistics, it is clear that, racial motivate conflicts occurs almost on daily bases in diverse social settings. In 2007, the world spent over $ 67 million to help racial conflict victims. In 2003, the United States of America’s Department of Justice received over 210,000 cases of racially motivated hate crimes in different states. The current statistics is a clear indication of elevating cases of racial conflict in a considerable number of the world society. Based on the current statistics, it is astonishing to understand that, a good percentage of modern racial instigated violence is more apparent among young people. For instance in 2005, the 21% of hate crime offenders in United States of America were under 18 years of age. Addition ally, most racial conflicts occur in learning institutions. Present statistics indicates that, over 64% of global conflicts in many learning institutions are motivated by nations of origin and race (Mitchell 621). By considering the fact , most of the racial conflict cases are common among young people, it is evident that, unless acute action is taken against racial conflict suspects, the menace is likely to be worse in the near future People vacating their homes due to racial conflicts in Italy Additionally, despite its daunting level, the accessible statistics may fail to present the actual cases of racial conflicts in different societies. This is due to the fact that, most of the available statistics is based on the reported cases. A good number of the affected

A critical discussion of the role of organisational memory on Essay

A critical discussion of the role of organisational memory on innovation - Essay Example ith implementation; the more innovative a function, the thinner the time gap between creating and executing, planning and creating, or conceptualizing and applying. Researchers have identified innovation as a variation from current customs or understanding (Mooner & Miner, 1997, p. 95). As advancement involves some level of design or plan, it is believed that is a type of innovation. Nonetheless, it is just one type of innovation. For instance, if an organization innovates a fresh technique to store chemicals by analyzing its requirements, collecting details, planning the fresh storage utility, receiving proposals, and ultimately creating it, the organization has innovated. In addition, innovative activities may involve quite different levels of improvement; a very huge percentage or comparatively tiny percentage of the activities may be novel. Some level of innovation is necessary for an activity to meet the chronological order classification due to its stress on plan or design of activity. These concerns propose a fine connection between innovation and organizational memory. On the other hand, they as well mean that treating them as the same could decrease the capability to appreciate the particular concerns of chronological order by confusing level of organizational memory with level of innovation. Clarifying these differences highlights the notion that the â€Å"proposed definition makes no predictions or assumptions in and of itself regarding the consequences of innovation† Mooner and Miner, 1997, p. 96). This makes innovation more helpful as a study field, because it is then possible to hypothesize as well as check ideas regarding the situations in which innovation is and is not important. It is argued here that organizational memory signifies one of the major determinants of the environment of innovative endings. One thing that is clear with respect to organizational innovation is the effect of earlier practices as well as understanding of the innovating

Economic Determinants of Higher Education Demand in the UK Assignment

Economic Determinants of Higher Education Demand in the UK - Assignment Example Advancement of new technologies and globalization has created complex high competitive environments in businesses. Thus, contemporary graduates commonly find occupations as programmers, journalists, primary school teachers, marketers, and retail managers. Higher education sector not only contributes to the development of country’s human resource, but also it provides a profitable business venture and a prominent source of export income to the UK (Universities UK, 2011). Therefore investigating the determinants of the demand in this sector can be beneficial to country’s economic growth. This study is focused on identifying the impact of students’ demographic characteristics on demand for higher education. It also examines the types of occupations in which graduates are significantly employed. The higher education sector in the UK comprises of universities, university colleges, specialist higher education institutions, and other higher education colleges. According to the statistics, there are 115 universities and 50 other higher education institutions in the UK. The demand for higher education derives from labor markets in UK, EU countries, and non-EU countries. The United Kingdom has a competitive advantage in providing higher education to the world due to its global reputation, elite higher education brands, historical trade and political links, the popularity of the English language and culture, and post-study employment prospects (Universities UK, 2012). These can be considered as â€Å"pull† factors (Mazzarol & Soutar, 2002). There are also â€Å"push† factors contributing to the growth of this sector. The push factors are largely generated based on the socio-political environments in the home countries of international students (Mazzarol & Soutar, 2002). Thus, changes occurring in those countries can affect the growth of higher education sector in the UK.  

The role and the purpose of the US Special Forces during the Vietnam Era Essay Example for Free

The role and the purpose of the US Special Forces during the Vietnam Era Essay Introduction: What is theory? Theory is other man’s experience. Otto von Bismarck put it this way: â€Å"Fools say they learn from experience. I prefer to learn from the experience of others.† Vietnam War taught many a new tactics to the US army in counter-guerrilla warfare. But the crusade in the jungles of Vietnam war not a happy experience for the US Army. The guerrilla warfare was not part of the US military culture. Vietnam War taught voluminous lessons to the US military. The Special Forces branch (Special Forces, SF, or Green Berets) is an elite special operations force; a part of the United States Army Special Operations Command (USASOC), a component of United States Special Operations Command (SOCOM).Special Forces units given many types of special responsibilities. â€Å"During the Vietnam war, special forces played an important role. Among their number were the US armys 5th Special Forces Group, Long Range Reconnaissance Patrol (LRRP) units, the Military Assistance Command—Vietnam—Studies Observation Group (MAC-V-SOG), US navy Sea Air Land (SEAL) teams, US Marine Force Reconnaissance units and USAF Air Commandos, special operations squadrons, and combat control teams of forward air controllers.† (Special Forces..) During the Vietnam War era, some of the assigned duties to these forces were unconventional warfare, special reconnaissance, foreign internal defense, counter terrorism, psychological operations, and proliferation and information operations. Vietnam War was a special type war for America. It was the war in a small country in a big way. The war was not ending even when they wished to terminate it early. It prolonged, went beyond their control, and ultimately Vietcong emerged victorious humbling the mighty USA. Humiliation and defeat were the two words which the US Army found hard to digest, yet they had no other alternative. What were the matchless guerilla warfare skills of the Vietcong, which contributed to the defeat of the mighty military force, including the US Special Forces? The task of fighting a war for a Western country like USA in an Asian country poses the language and communication problems. A wing of the Special Forces is trained in local language skills, familiarizes itself with the local culture and acquires special skills in working with foreign troops. The listing of their duties is fairly long and duties are added depending upon the contingencies. Some of the important duties taken care of by the US Special Forces during the Vietnam Era are peacekeeping, humanitarian assistance, de-mining and counter-drug operations, combat search and rescue, coalition warfare and support etc. Many of the operational techniques of the U.S. Special Forces are secret but doctrinal manuals are available for the common man, press and research scholars. Their official motto is De Oppresso Liber (Latin: â€Å"To Liberate the Oppressed† Special Forces are not under the command of the ground commanders, unless otherwise specified. While in theatre, mostly they report directly to the United Sates Central Command. The Special Forces organized Civilian Irregular Defiance Groups (CIDG) during the Vietnam War. For most of the duration of the War, the 5th Special Forces trained and led CIDG mobile strike forces. To create such forces, minority tribes and groups from the border and mountain regions were drafted. Small-unit patrols defended their home bases in the border areas, to deter the Vietcong and North Vietnamese regular units of the army. Initially this plan succeeded and the U. S. Special Forces units encountered success after success. (U .S. Army†¦) â€Å"Whats more, during 1966-67 American field commanders increasingly employed Special Forces-led Mike units in long-range reconnaissance missions or as economy-of-force security elements for regular units. Other CIDG-type forces, called mobile guerrilla forces, raided enemy base areas and employed hit-and-run guerrilla tactics against regular enemy units†Ã‚   (U. S. Army†¦)From recruits amongst the Nung tribes, three units were formed, Dela, Sigma and Omega, which formed part of the Special Forces. They were both reaction forces and put on duty of reconnaissance. Their contribution to the war effort was significant. The 2500 regular soldiers of the U.S Army raised and led an army of 50,000 tribal fighters. Being familiar with the local conditions and geography, they operated successfully in some of the most difficult terrains and areas of Vietnam. â€Å"The CIDG patrolling of border infiltration areas provided reliable tactical intelligence, and the units secured populations in areas that might have been otherwise conceded to the enemy.†Ã‚   (Clarke, pp.196-207) In short, the CIDG, CAP, and CORDS programs encountered success in pursuing the counterinsurgency in Vietnam. They contributed in greater measure to the scope and area of actionable intelligence. They provided valuable experience and lessons to the US army as to how to fight wars in Vietnam-like situations. In war situations and in an ongoing conflict, it is futile to talk about permanent victory or permanent defeat. Only permanent efforts matter. In the initial stages, the US offensive led by the Special forces in many areas and departments of the war were successful. But soon, problems began to surface one after another. The once US solutions became the present US problems. The seeds of hostility between the South Vietnamese and the ethnic minority groups of the CIDG strike forces blocked the US efforts to Republic of Vietnam Special Forces take command of the CIDG program. The second drawback was that the villagers became habituated to the security cover provided by the Special Forces. They proved incapable of defending themselves, due to poor leadership and equipments. Conclusion: In the end, even the well-trained Special Forces of USA, assisted by the Vietnamese, were no match for the grit and determination of the Vietcong. They proved capable to fight a prolonged war in their own territory, and in the unconventional war, they succeeded in conducting surprise ambushes and giving telling blows to the Special Forces. They excelled in every area, guerrilla warfare, subversion, evasion and escape and sabotage. â€Å"Clear and hold† counterinsurgency strategy by the American military including the Special Forces, in the concluding stages of the Vietnam War, doomed the American military might. The policy of General William Westmoreland to seek out every soldier and kill him (â€Å"search and destroy†) proved counter-productive. He was replaced by General Creighton Abrams, who reversed the earlier order by another strategy—controlling and defending patches of territory and population. But even that did not work. The people began to hate Americans intensely. Tiny villages and hamlets were bombed by the American army. The civilian casualties were heavy. In a six-month operation, the US 9th Division, counted 10,000 dead, but only 751 weapons were recovered. This indicates a large number of civilian causalities. Viet Cong did suffer heavy losses from 1968-1972, but soon the US Administration realized that the Special Forces had outlived their role in Vietnam. The debate whether the U.S. political authority   let down the war efforts or was it the   awesome ordeal of fighting the war for two decades, that contributed to the eventual defeat of the American forces   still goes on unabated. To fight a interminable guerrilla and conventional war in the enemy territory for such a long period is no ordinary job. The long run had the telling effect on the morale of the army, which was haunted by corruption and factionalism. The popular support had dwindled. At such a juncture, the Communists took to the offensive and the defeat of the American Army was round the corner.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  .   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚           References: Special Forces: Definition and Much More www.answers.com/topic/special-forces 95k Retrieved on June 14, 2008 U.S. Army Professional Writing For much of the Vietnam War, the 5th Special Forces Group†¦ www.army.mil/professionalwriting/volumes/volume2/august_2004/08_04_02pf.html 43k Cached – Retrieved on June 14, 2008 Clarke, Jeffrey J:   Advice and Support: The Final Years (Washington: US Army Center of Military History, 1988), pp. 196-207.

The Crucible Act Essay Example for Free

The Crucible Act Essay This meant that God chose each person from birth for salvation or damnation. Only God knew the fate of a person and nothing you did would change it. They lived very strict lives that adhered to the divine law and you were condemned if you didn’t obey it. 2. When Abigail accuses Tituba of witchcraft just to get the pressure off of her and so that they would stop asking her questions. More evidence is found when we discover the affair between Abigail and proctor which could be the reason why Abigail tries to hide the truth about what really happened. An alternative is that they just wanted to do something daring and fun because Puritans were very strict and they didn’t have that much freedom. Or they wanted to use witchcraft to make potions to get men to fall in love with them. 3. Reverend Paris is the minister of Salem. He caught his daughter Betty, Ruth Putnam, and Abigail Williams dancing with Tituba in the woods. He thinks they were performing witchcraft and now he’s worried that he’ll be kicked out of the town for having a witch as a daughter. He is a paranoid, attention seeking, self-absorbed person. Most people in the town don’t like him. 4. Thomas Putnam was a very wealthy man who wanted to increase his wealth buy accusing people of witchcraft and then buying their land. Ann Putnam is Thomas Putnam’s wife who is woman who has experienced many deaths and has bad dreams. She thinks that witchcraft was the reason that she had 7 stillborn children, so she’s okay with blaming these deaths on the supernatural and wants justice for the â€Å"wicked doings† of someone else. Ruth Putnam is the only surviving child of the Putnams. She fell ill along with Betty after Reverend Parris found them dancing in the woods. Ruth goes to Tituba to conjure spirits so she’d be able to communicate with her dead siblings because her mother asked her to. 5. It became suspicious when we found out that Elizabeth didn’t want to sit near Abigail (whom she fired), despite the fact that Abigail has denied doing anything wrong. The commentary gives us a bit of background information and helps us understand some of the things going on in the story. On page 1241 the 5 paragraphs of commentary go into detail about Thomas Putnam, discussing his background life and personality. From this commentary we now know that Putnam was very wealthy and he felt like he had superiority over everyone else. He has a vindictive, revengeful, and bitter personality. This gives us insight into the character so that we can deeply understand them which will help us grasp the story better.

General Kornilovs Attempt to Seize Power in 1917

General Kornilovs Attempt to Seize Power in 1917 Why had General Kornilovs attempt to seize power in 1917 not been successful? The Prelude to Bolshevism: The Kornilov Rebellion[1] is the title of one of the books written by Alexander Fyodorovich Kerensky. From the title alone it shows Kornilovs view which are shared by many others that the Kornilov affair has accelerated the Bolshevik seizure of power[2]. The Kornilov affair officially started on 27th August / 09th September 1917, when the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Army, General Lavr Georgiyevich Kornilov, brought a troops to Petrograd although he had been dismissed by Alexander Kerensky, the head of the Provisional Government at the time[3]. The Kornilov Affair is regarded by many historians as one of the turning points in the rise of Bolshevik Party after a short slump after July Days and consequently towards the event in October 1917. After the Kornilov affair, the Bolshevik Party aligned with various members of society and gaining their supports in assisting to toppling the already crippled Provisional Government. Despite its importance, the affair (which also referred as a coup detat or a revolt) is historically unclear different interpretations but with no concrete evidences. The accounts contradicted with each other and this led to historical debates which were dominantly discussed the different arguments brought up by Abraham Ascher and Lenoid Strakhovsky. Ascher is highly critical on Kornilov, stating that he conspired to take the power as part of his ambitious plan; whereas Strakhovsky challenged this by arguing that Kerensky had staged this whole affair and betrayed Kornilovs goodwill to prevent Bolshevism from taking root.[4] Both have used Kornilovs dismissal by Kerensky as a justification for their action the former argues that by refusing to accept the dismissal it was a proof to Kerenskys suspicion[5]. The latter, on the other hand, sympathises Kornilovs assumption that Kerensky had been influenced by the Soviet and it was his duty to protect Russia.[6] Aside from these two, a so mewhat completely different from the previous two, where they are not the main actor: it stemmed out from a misunderstanding with the former Procurator of the Holy Synod, V.N. Lvovs involvement[7], Kornilov claimed that Kerensky through Lvov offered choices of who should be in power[8], whereas Lvov claimed that Kornilov ordered him to tell Kerensky his demand for military dictatorship[9]. Lvovs real involvement is still debated. The more balanced interpretation by Harvey Asher, suggests that Kornilov was convinced that the government supported his march after several people had visited him including Lvov. Moreover, Asher suggests that they conspired together to restore peoples trust towards the government, although Kerensky later pulled out.[10] These debates show partly the existing tension and division between the two actors which led to the failure of the coup. These tensions were an open opportunity for the Bolshevik Party could exploit especially when Kerensky appealed to the Petrograd Soviet to defend the capital. This led to the physical reason for this failure: the quick mass mobilisation by the Bolshevik Party. It could be regarded as a mistake made by Kerensky as the rearmament of the Bolshevik Military Organisation would led to his and the Provisional Government downfall later in October. His fear of being overthrown by Kornilov a person who he had been having quarrel with[11] and a right-wing[12] and his will to elevate Provisional Governments reputation[13] might have clouded his judgement. The lack of trust and doubt amongst each other Kerenskys failure to read the mood of the situation he was in and overestimating his and general disorganisation were also the reasons for the coups failure. Despite being favo ured as the victor[14], Kornilov lost and subsequently met his death when he participated in the Civil War against the Bolsheviks. The Kornilov Affair was triggered when Lvov came to Kerensky and demanded for the transfer of power to Kornilov. The whole narration is long, which partly has been mentioned previously, however, it shows the general mechanism in the government and their personalities. Miscommunication, distribution of power, lack of confidence and distrust with each other and different groups supporting different people for their own ambitions are all highlighted. First, the miscommunication. Just after hearing from Lvov that he was suited to be a military dictator, Kerensky quickly announced Kornilov for a military coup against the government for fear that he might be removed from the power[15]. Kornilov claimed to be acting on Kerenskys instruction; Kerensky painted Kornilov as a counter-revolutionary who wanted to a dictator. Although, there is some evidence stating that Kerensky regretted his dismissals and hesitate to brand Kornilov as a traitor. In fact, there was an attempt to try to negotiate with Kornilov, albeit he was under pressure. However, unknown to them, Nekrasov had dispatched the message and it was too late for them when they realised about this.[16] These misunderstandings and lack of cohesion certainly shows existing fractures in the Provisional Government which led to the downfall of both sides. Nekrasovs action, albeit there was an attempt to delay the declaration, removed any chance for reconciliation. Lack of further co mmunication, whether it was for confirmation or negotiation, were noticeable. For example, instead of asking Kornilov after Alekseev sent him the note, Krymov went directly to Kerensky and stopped the troop from advancing. There was also the telecommunication between Kerensky and Kornilov over Hughes Apparatus where the conversation appears to be vague and no direct confrontation.[17] Some historians believed that Kerensky was trying to remove Kornilov quietly.[18] Instead of working together and worked their differences, they were more focus on removing each other. This might have been due to their prior clash in regards to capital and corporal punishment in the army to name a few[19]. In regards to Lvov, it seems unlikely that Kerensky explicitly instructed Kornilov to march troops into Petrograd and given him the choices: where one of them was that Kornilov would be a dictator[20]. Although it seems to be benefited Kerensky, he was probably no more trusting of Kornilov than others. Bringing in Kornilovs army into Petrograd would risk of military counter-revolution. It is still unclear how Lvovs and Kornilovs claims differed from each other. As mentioned earlier, nearing the peak of the affair in the end of August, people were positive that Kornilovs troop would win: his generals, landowners[21], large officers union, the Cossacks and the increase in Stock Exchange.[22] Considering that majority of the High Command sympathised with Kornilov[23] and his previous meetings with different people giving supports, it is not surprising when Kornilov was confident that his march would be a successful coup. However, not all of these groups were supportive of his plan. Earlier on, there was already opposition against Kornilov. Moscow Military District, Colonel Verkhovsky, expressed his support towards the government and distanced himself from Kornilov. There was also wariness amongst people in Stavka where they saw little chance in his march into Petrograd.[24] Only some of the professional soldiers believed in this advance, but many were not dedicated in trying to assist Kornilov. Moreover, with the denunciation calling Kornilov as a traitor made by Kerensky had further convince them to distance themselves from the affair avoiding from being purged together with Kornilov if the affair had gone to different turn.[25] Kornilovs deliberate military plan collapsed. Between the 30th and 31st, the Third Cavalry Corps which was supposed to crush the soviets[26] did not arrive. Kerensky ordered General Alekseev to send a note to General Krymov that there was no Bolshevik uprising as predicted by Kornilov and consequently, he halted their advance into the capital. The generals of the troops General Krymov and Denikin were also cornered by their own troops and reluctantly had to surrender with the former shot himself[27]. Similarly, the troops also deserted after hearing that there was no uprising. The generals and Kornilov kept the soldiers in the dark in what they were actually fighting for only be told that they were there to fight against the Bolsheviks[28] which led to further decline in supports. The foundation of the coup was still not concrete and arguably the timing was a miss. Kornilov had failed to see the mood and the political situation at the time. The troops saw Kornilov as someone who reintroduced capital punishment death penalty and attempted to counter the revolution. Thus, after hearing that there were no Bolshevik uprisings and Kerenskys declaration of Kornilov as a traitor, mutinies soon broke out with some divisions pledged themselves to the cause of revolution the Bolsheviks. They helped other workers and prevented the remaining troops from marching and arrested anyone who was in favour of Kornilov.[29] These miscalculations and disorganised troops are highly dissimilar from the mass mobilisation by the Bolsheviks and the workers. Although, mass mobilisation against Kornilov by the Bolsheviks had been debated whether it was spontaneous or a completely organised deployment, this mobilisation had completely stumped Kornilovs effort. Kerensky appealed to Petrograd Soviet to stop Kornilov and defend the city (at the same time shows a weakness of the Provisional Government) led to the rearmament of Military Organisation which were both consisted of Bolsheviks and Mensheviks. Mass meetings were also conducted to discuss their plan against Kornilov in addition to a demand for the release of July Days Bolshevik prisoners. The demand was conceded and prisoners including Trotsky was free. These would be important later a couple month after. A committee was set up to defend the city, Committee for the Peoples Struggle against Counter Revolution[30]. This includes erecting fortifications around the city and barbed wires[31]. The Soviet was also involved in coordinating the distribution of weaponry and conducted searches a nd arrested anyone who was suspected to be counter-revolutionaries. Committees at province level were also created. This was to set up networks of communication between provinces[32]. Red Guards were created of mainly of left SR sympathisers and Bolsheviks and armed with many were trained by the [33]Military Organisations from a possible assault. These two organisations were overseen by Inter-District Conference of Petrograd Local Soviets. As shown, in comparison to the lacklustre that of Kornilovs military troops, the Soviets gradually created a working strings of groups. Moreover, agitators managed to infiltrate Kornilovs troops and persuaded them to desert the advance, coupled with Kerenskys declaration. They also cooperated with the telegraph and railway workers[34] which further disorganised Kornilovs effort. On the communication side, any suspicious telegraphs were supposed to be redirected whereas on the transportation side, they were instructed to make chaos. They destroyed railway tracks and sabotage communications. As results, the troops were moving on the wrong roads, arrived at wrong places, only some of the units got dispatched and many of the soldiers were separated from their commanders, and loss of communications with their units in short, confusion and disorder.[35] With these confusion, the movement had collapsed. The Red Guards managed to disable the coup without firing a single bullet and bloodshed; except for few murder of counter-revolutionaries[36]. Thus, shedding positive light onto the Bolshevik Party as the saviours and the p rotectors of the revolution. Consequently, this resulted in a large increase of support. Kornilov and other thirty army officers which were believed to conspire together, were incarcerated in the Bykhov Fortress. After the October event, Kornilov managed to escape and establish the Volunteer Army which later fought against the Bolsheviks during the Civil War; where he was killed. Although Kerensky did not contribute and directly involved, Kerensky still insisted of being a protector of Revolution.[37] Kornilov did not gain anything from this whole affair, more people supported the Left, he was removed and the Right was shaken.[38] The main problem with his advance was the miscommunication between everyone involved that was later could be exploited by their common enemy. The victor of this whole but short affair was the Bolsheviks. The party revived and strengthened amidst the political chaos and distrust. On the other hand, Kerensky lost the military support. Although there are officer corps refused to join Kornilovs mutiny, they abhorred Kerenskys attitude towards their generals and growing distrust towards officer corps amongst the common soldiers. Thus increasing division between these two groups.[39] The revolt had radicalised the masses. The Soviet Press began with their propaganda and due to their policy of being a fighter against Kornilov but no association with the Provisional Government, they became popular. Therefore, coupled with the increasing support and gaining control over the Petrograd Soviet, the Provisional Government was further weakened and in October/November 1917, the Bolshevik Party seized the power off from the Provisional Government as the champion for the Soviets. Bibliography: Ascher, Abraham, The Kornilov Affair, The Russian Review, Vol. 12:4, (1953) Asher, Harvey, The Kornilov Affair: A Reinterpretation, The Russian Review, Vol. 29:3, (1970) Kerensky, Alexander, The Prelude to the Bolshevism: The Kornilov Rebellion, (London, 1919) Munck, Jorgen Larsen, Translated by Torben Keller, Schmidt, The Kornilov Revolt (Denmark, 1987) Strakhovsky, Leonoid, Was There a Kornilov Rebellion A Reapraisal of the Evidence, Slavonic and East European Review, vol. XXXIII:81 (1955) Sukhanov, Nikolai, Translated by Joel Carmichael, The Russian Revolution 1917, (London, 1955) White, James D, The Russian Revolution 1917-1920: A Short History, (New York, 1994) August 1917: Kornilovs Coup Fails http://www.socialistalternative.org/russian-revolution-1917/august-1917-kornilovs-coup-fails/ Socialist Alternatives http://www.socialistalternative.org/, Accessed on 01 December 2016 The Causes of the October Revolution http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/higher/history/russia/october/revision/3/ BBC Higher Bitesize UK http://www.bbc.co.uk/ Accessed on 23 November 2016 [1] Alexander Kerensky, The Prelude to the Bolshevism: The Kornilov Rebellion, (London, 1919) [2] Abraham, Ascher, The Kornilov Affair, The Russian Review, Vol. 12:4, (1953) p. 235; Nikolai, Sukhanov, Translated by Joel Carmichael, Russian Revolution, (London, 1955) pp. 522-523; Harvey Asher, The Kornilov Affair: A Reinterpretation, The Russian Review, Vol. 29:3, (1970), p. 300 [3] Ibid, p. 235 [4] Ascher, The Kornilov Affair pp. 235-52; Leonoid, Strakhovsky, Was There a Kornilov Rebellion A Reapraisal of the Evidence, Slavonic and East European Review, vol. XXXIII:81 (1955), pp. 372-95, p. 372; Also mentioned in Jorgen Larsen, Munck, Translated by Torben Keller, Schmidt, The Kornilov Revolt (Denmark, 1987) pp. 11-13 [5] Ascher, The Kornilov Affair, pp. 247-28 [6] Asher, p. 287 [7] Munck, The Kornilov Affair, pp. 106-109 [8] Lukomskii, pp. 238-39; Munck, p. 107 [9] RD, pp. 428, 442; Munck, p. 108 [10] Asher, pp. 299-300 [11] James D, White, The Russian Revolution 1917-1920: A Short History, (New York, 1994), pp. 139-141 [12] Asher, p. 300 [13] Asher, p. 300 [14] Munck, p. 114 [15] Asher, p. 297 [16] Asher, The Kornilov Affair, p. 298 [17] Ibid, p. 296 [18] Asher, p. 297; Rabinowitch, pp. 124-5; Katkov, pp. 86-87 mentioned in Munck, p. 111 [19] White, p. 134 [20] Munck, p. 107 [21] The Kornilov Affair, p. 244-245 [22] Munck, p. 114 [23] Munck, p. 114; Kerensky, pp. 184-5 [24] White, The Russian Revolution, p. 147; Asher, p. 300 [25] White, The Russian Revolution, p. 147 [26] Ascher, The Kornilov Affair, p. 241 [27] The Kornilov Affair, p. 250 [28] Ibid, p. 250 [29] White, The Russian Revolution, p. 148; A. Wildman, Officers of the general staff and the Kornilov movement, in E.R. Frankel et. Al., eds., Revolution in Russia: Reassessments of 1917 (Cambridge, 1992), pp. 95-99 [30] White, The Russian Revolution, p. 149 [31]August 1917: Kornilovs Coup Fails http://www.socialistalternative.org/russian-revolution-1917/august-1917-kornilovs-coup-fails/ Socialist Alternatives http://www.socialistalternative.org/, Accessed on 01 December 2016 [32] White, The Russian Revolution, p. 149 [33] Munck, p. 117 [34] Ibid, p. 148; The Causes of the October Revolution http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/higher/history/russia/october/revision/3/ BBC Higher Bitesize UK http://www.bbc.co.uk/ Accessed on 23 November 2016; Munck, p. 118 [35] White, The Russian Revolution, p. 147 [36] Munck, p. 115 [37] Munck, p. 119 [38] Munck, p. 121 [39] White, The Russian Revolution, p. 150; Munck, p. 121

Personal Narrative :: essays research papers

A calm crisp breeze circled my body as I sat emerged in my thoughts, hopes, and memories. The rough bark on which I sat reminded me of the rough road many people have traveled, only to end with something no one in human form can contemplate. â€Å"How can the complex working of the universe and the world around me end in such a simple catastrophe?† I wondered. I sat back and let the sun bathe me in its bright, reminiscent light. The atmosphere around me was quiet, but just a few feet away people were mourning a great life. It was a life that some say was â€Å"lived to the longest and the fullest.† I ,on the other hand, held a solid disagreement. The â€Å"longest† couldn’t yet be over, could it? Seventy-five just seemed too short when I had only shared thirteen years with this fabulously, wonderful woman. I stood up, as the loud vibrations of the church bells seem to touch my heart. I crossed the long, seemingly endless stream of soft healthy green grass to the black box, which lay just as I had left it in its own solitude. Inside of it lay the violin in which I had devoted a lot of my middle school life to. I had spent many hours practicing on this wooden contraption. Now all of my hard work, all of my hours practicing, would go into making this one piece sound amazing, spectacular, and memorable. This wasn’t something I was doing for myself. This was something I was doing for my family, friends, and most importantly the sweet, cherished soul of my dearly departed grandmother. I wanted there to be one last remarkable token of my love for someone who had made such a large impact on my life. I knew that my grandmother had absolutely loved the fact that I play a violin. She had always said that I held so much talent. â€Å"This,† I thought, â€Å"will be something that she truly would have wanted.† I opened the box and looked at the soft velvet casing. The freshly polished wood of my instrument glittered golden brown in the evening sun. I reached for it and picked it up. The usually very light instrument seemed to weigh more than I could ever remember. I walked in a straight line up the side of the church building. I passed the graves of many of the dead as I made my way to the door.

class struggles Essay -- essays research papers

Class Struggles In the Communist Manifesto Karl Marx explains his historical vision of a revolutionary class struggle between Bourgeois and Proletarians. His views are highlighted from the very beginning â€Å"The History of all hitherto societies has been the history of class struggles† (50). Focusing on the development and eventual destruction of the bourgeoisie, which was the dominant class of his day, and the rise of the working class, that of the Proletarians. I do understand that in some cases the system has a stain upon it and Marx was out to find the solution. Unfortunately he thought that by making a radical socialistic movement, and changing the a capitalist system to a communistic one that the answer would have been put in place. The idea is put in simple terms, but the complexity of actually making it a reality is not. I understand that the harsh conditions in which the Proletarians worked and lived was enough reason for a revolution. This is when Marx elaborates the social changes communists hope to effect on behalf of the proletariat. With communism they will get rid of private property, which is the primary base of the problem, "...the theory of the Communists may be summed up in the single sentence: Abolition of private property" (67). I tend to believe that a mans property is that of value, this is a creation that is a fruit to man. In other words he is claiming that with no private property t...

Harry Martinson’s Views from a Tuft of Grass Essay

Harry Martinson’s Views from a Tuft of Grass is one literary piece that deals with nature- its innate beauty and the special bond humans have with nature. The book contains several essays and a poem, and all of these explore the subject of the natural world around us admirably well. Through his vivid imagery and skillful use of words, Martinson takes the reader into his colorful and inviting world. Undoubtedly, valuing nature is one of the book’s major themes. Martinson makes his readers aware of the significance of nature to a person’s life. In one essay entitled Summer Reflections, he tells of his own longing for the summer season as opposed to that of a person coming from the tropics. He says that people who come from arctic or semi-artic places are more aware of the summer and that the word â€Å"summer† holds more meaning to them than for those who come from the opposite part of the earth. He tells this with such clarity and directness that one cannot help but feel the same longing for the heat and colors brought about by the summer. He makes us understand nature more by taking us to a beautiful world that sadly, often goes unnoticed and unappreciated. Through his illustrative essays we are implored to be more appreciative and aware of the natural wonders we have. Another literary theme that is implied in this book is the significant place folktales hold in shaping an author’s writing style. Martinson gives importance to these childhood stories. A spellbinding storyteller himself, he mentions folktales that he, as a Swedish child, believed in. He said that folktales invariably decide what kind of a storyteller an author would be. And through this, we would know what the author’s sense of personal aesthetic is. â€Å"MAJOR THEMES OF VIEWS FROM A TUFT OF GRASS† PAGE # 2 In his essay On Nature Writing, the importance of science is the major theme explored. The author implied that reality and imagination must be entwined before we can accurately paint nature’s innate beauty though words. Science, poetry and nature should be woven together so as to achieve perfection in writing. He said that we should combine scientific knowledge with artistry in order to capture the true mysteries as well as the aesthetic value of nature. One cannot go without the other- both are equally essential tools in nature writing. He gives advice to writers to be more sensitive and to challenge the power of words usually used to describe nature. He insists that writers should be more insightful so as to paint a clearer and more beautiful depiction of nature. In another essay, Martinson believes that the map is a significant piece of nature scientifically drawn into a piece of paper. He asserts that the map is a work of art and must be given importance too. Definitely, Martinson wants to give importance to science with respect to nature as explored in his essays. Truly, Martinson’s Views from a Tuft of Grass is an adorable work of art. It uses a very different approach to nature writing. It explores the subtle territories between nature and the factors that affect a writer’s depiction of it. Very few writers can achieve what Martinson has achieved: he has not only succeeded in beautifully illustrating nature through words, creating wonderful prose, but he has also succeeded in provoking significant, if not stirring, thoughts and memories in his readers. He makes his readers realize that we, as humans, are but a dot in the vast and varied environment around us. Humbling and even belittling, but very thought provoking. REFERENCE Martinson, Harry, Anderson, Erland, and Lars Nordstrom. Views from a Tuft of Grass. Los Angeles, California: Green Integer Books, 2005.

Does age matter in reltionships Essay

Relationships shape our lives. People can fall in love without considering nothing at that time. When it comes to the age, sometimes no matter for them how old or how young the partners are. Even if they do not consider about the age, but society criticizes and judges easily. As long as the partners satisfy and bless each other who cares about the age except our society. Mi (2011) explains † When it comes to love age is just a number. Many couples who have a large age difference, they are so happy with their relationships†(para.6). Age may cause problems for a lot of people in their relationships sometimes not. However, our society affects most of the time. If older women date with younger   men, the women will be frowned directly in our society. According to Mastery (2013) â€Å"No matter how common it may already sound, dating scenarios such as; older women dating with younger men are still frowned upon by society†. People have heard whining from their family. For example; you cannot date with him, he is too old or too young and if people date with young or old people then everybody says about them. It really influences you and makes you guilty however there is nothing wrong to worry. Curley (2013) says † What matters love is love, no matter what age or circumstance with more love in your life, there will be more life in your love.†. For example; if people have young partner, they can take care of each other better than having old partner. If you have same age partners then partners will definitely need help because they will not be as energetic as before. For example; if you have young partner, he or she can take care of you better than having old partner. If you have same age partner you and your partner will definitely need help because you and your partner will not be as energetic as before. In conclusion, many people might think the different ages cause so many problems in their relationships. I agree, it might be true, but problem is everywhere in relationships does not matter about age even though people are in the same age still they will have different problems. As long as people are happy with their relationships, there is no necessary to say anything. Schilling (2007) explains † When it comes to love, age is just a number†

Social Learning Theory Psychology

In the field of Psychology, learning theories are there to attempt to explain how people think and what factors ultimately influence their behavior (ETR, 2007). There are various types of learning theories which all include different concepts and approaches to distinguish an understanding of human behavior and thought (ETR, 2007). The social learning theory (SLT) is just one of many theories which fall under the category of learning theories.The social learning theory, which is also commonly known as social cognitive theory, is justified in the belief that human behavior is determined by a triangular effect relationship between environmental influences, cognitive factors, and behavior (ETR, 2007). To have a proper understanding of the social learning theory, one needs to have been adequately briefed in the major contributors of the theory, a thorough description of what the theory entails, assumptions about the theory, and the developmental process and practice which has previously a nd currently taken place. Accomplishment is socially judged by ill defined criteria so that one has to rely on others to find out how one is doing (Kearsley, 2008). † This was stated by Albert Bandura, who is one of the two major contributors to the social learning theory. Bandura was born the youngest and only male of six siblings on December 4, 1925, in Mundare, Canada (Pajares, 2004). Fast-forwarding through his childhood, Bandura eventually found himself attending the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada. His happening to fall into psychology was simply a fluke for him, for he was planning to get a degree in the biological sciences (Pajares, 2004). Bandura carpooled with peers to school who were all majors in engineering and pre-med, which entailed them to have early morning classes (Pajares, 2004). To fill his workload, Bandura had an open-morning spot to fill on his roster, which is where he fell into an introduction to psychology course (Pajares, 2004). He was instantly intrigued, which led him on his path to becoming one of the great contributors to this field. In 1949, he graduated with the Bolocan Award in psychology from the University of British Columbia (Pajares, 2004). His next task was to knock down graduate school, where he attended at the University of Iowa and received his Ph. D. in clinical psychology in 1952 (Pajares, 2004). Starting already in 1953, Bandura found himself teaching at Stanford University where he came across a well-educated student by the name of Richard Walters (Pajares, 2004). The two found themselves equally interested in the studies of explaining antisocial aggression in young males who came from wholesome households in upper-class residential areas in comparison to demonstrating that multiple opposing conditions may lead to behavioral problems (Pajares, 2004). This particular study led Bandura and Walters to co-write a book, Adolescent Aggression, in 1959 (Pajares, 2004). From there, Bandura wrote a chain of numerous books dealing with the social learning theory. Later he became a found member and elected President of the American Psychological Association in 1973 (Pajares, 2004). The second major contributor to the social learning theory came from a man by the name of Lev Vygotsky. Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who was born in 1896 (Gallagher, 1999). Vygotsky was said to be a connoisseur of literature and philosophy (Gallagher, 1999). He attended the University of Moscow, where he studied and received a degree in law (Gallagher, 1999). It was not until 1924 when Vygotsky became interested in psychology (Gallagher, 1999). He had written a paper, The Psychology of Art, in 1925 which he used primarily in his thesis at the Moscow Institute of Psychology. Between the years of 1924-1934, before his death due to Tuberculosis, is when all his psychology work was practiced (Gallagher, 1999). In those 10 years of research and study of psychology, Vygotsky became an active follower of the sociocultural theory which suggests that development of a child relies on interaction with people and the tools or resources that the culture provides to help form their personal view of the world (Gallagher, 1999). The social learning theory (SLT), among others, is one of the most commonly used models currently. SLT is not a horribly complex model, for it is based around the interactions made from one another through observations, imitations, and modeling (Learning, 2008). Due to the fact that the SLT encompasses attention, memory, and motivation, it is said to be a bridge for psychologists between behaviorists and cognitive learning (Learning, 2008). The SLT focuses on the prospect that people learn through observing other people’s behaviors, attitudes, and outcomes of those behaviors observed (Learning, 2008). The social learning theory has three basic principles which make the breakdown of the theory very clear. The first principle is that people can learn through observation (Boeree, 2006). Bandura had conducted a well-known experiment known as the â€Å"Bobo Doll Study† (Boeree, 2006). In this study, Bandura had a set of dolls to which adult figures would interact with, in terms of gentle and/or aggressive behavior while children observed. Later, children were let into the room and were allowed to play with the same set of dolls that the adults had previously used. From observational learning, the children themselves inflicted the same type of behavior that the adults previously did. The children who observed a gentle act toward the Bobo doll reacted in the same way to pursue a more calm and loving affect toward the doll. In contrast, the children who observed aggressive behavior toward the Bobo doll also copied the same behavior of aggression toward the doll (Boeree, 2006). Bandura came up with three basic models of observational learning through conducting this study (Boeree, 2006). The first model is a live model. This involves an actual human individual who is acting out or demonstrating a particular behavior (Boeree, 2006). The second model is the verbal instructional approach. This involves giving the description and directions to acting out a certain behavior (Boeree, 2006). The third and last model is the symbolic model. This encompasses real of fictional characters. These characters are set to display behaviors in books, television, movies, or online media (Boeree, 2006). The second of the three basic principles is mental states are important to learning (Boeree, 2006). In greater detail, this involves and contributes to intrinsic reinforcement. Bandura was the contributor to this that previously noted that external, environmental reinforcement was not the only factor to influence learning and behavior (Boeree, 2006). This is where the idea of intrinsic reinforcement comes into place. This type of reinforcement is internal, which can include feelings of satisfaction, pride, and sense of accomplishment (Boeree, 2006). This is how the term of â€Å"social cognitive theory† correlates directly with the social learning theory. These types of reinforcements emphasize the internal thoughts and cognitions to help cooperate with theories of cognitive development (Boeree, 2006). The last of the three basic principles is that learning does not necessarily lead to change in behavior (Boeree, 2006). This means that observational learning does not define all observed behaviors; not all behaviors must be and are acting on (Boeree, 2006). One can learn something through observation without demonstrating the new information attained. These three main principles paved the way for more of Bandura’s work in the SLT, and the introduction to specific modeling process. The modeling process consists of four primary steps which lead to the development of understanding social learning theory. The first step is known by the word of â€Å"Attention† (Learning, 2008). This concept states that in order for an individual to learn, they have to be paying attention. It is possible for distractions of course, but anything that distracts one is going to ultimately have a negative effect on the observational learning taking place (Learning, 2008). A few examples of distractions could include being sleepy, groggy, sick, nervous, drugged, or even â€Å"hyper† in a sense can affect the learning process. All of those feelings can be competing factors with one’s attention span. Likewise, for something that may be of interest to the subject, full attention could be put into place and more dedication to observing and absorbing new information could happen (Learning, 2008). The second step is known as â€Å"Retention† (Learning, 2008). Retention is known as the storing process of observational learning. The ability or lack of to store or remember information plays an important role in the learning process (Learning, 2008). Retention, just like attention, can be affected by many different factors as well. This is also where imagery and language come into play. One is able to store information in terms of verbal knowledge or imagery knowledge, depending on the subject and situation. Later, one is expected to â€Å"bring up† the previously observed information if retention was successful (Learning, 2008). No need to say that retaining information is a vital aspect to observational learning. Third on the list of steps for the social learning model is â€Å"Reproduction† (Learning, 2008). This is where the performance of information retained is put into place. Once one has actually gone thorough attention and retained the proper information necessary, it is expected that one can perform the behavior initially learned (Learning, 2008). Of course, there are limitations to the ability of being able to perform certain tasks. For example, one can watch an Olympic gold medalist do an entire gymnastic tumbling routine on the mat, but may not have the ability to flex their body that particular way and be able to perform some of the stunts observed. This is why there is a leniency for the ability to perform tasks for the purpose that further practice may be needed (Learning, 2008). With a combination of practice of the learned behavior and continuous observation of the behavior, the performance level may have improvement and further skill advancement. The final of the four proper steps is â€Å"Motivation† (Learning, 2008). In order for most observational learning to be successful to any state, motivation is crucial to imitate the modeled behavior (Learning, 2008). There are several factors that Bandura stated to be a vital part in the motivational factor of the observed behavior performance. Reinforcement and punishment are key concepts in motivation levels (Learning, 2008). Past reinforcement, such as a reward after a proper outtake of the behavior, can motivate one to imitate the new observed behavior. In contrast, past punishment can be the same type of motivator. One who was punished previously for not conducting the observed behavior properly will make one want to conduct the new behavior successfully because they are aware of the consequences if not done properly (Learning, 2008). Also, promised reinforcements or punishments can do the same type of influence. A promised reinforcement, such as a treat, could make one strive to perform the task correctly. On the other hand, a promised punishment, such as a threat, can give the same affect (Learning, 2008).

Pollution in China Essay

Introduction China, with its rapid industrialisation seems to have paid its price by witnessing steeply rising levels of pollution. With millions of largely unregulated industries, the vast rivers, streams and lakes have become easy avenues for chemical, textile and tanning industries to discharge their toxic contents at will. The paper discusses the pollution in China, its impact on the environment and how it has affected the lives of people.   An Overview of Pollution in China   A report by the World Bank (China 2007) has pointed out that China is facing increased levels of pollution that has kept pace with the rising industrialisation of rural China. The report points out that the use of energy in China has went up by 70 % between 2000 and 2005. The use of coal has also increased by 75% and this has created a corresponding increase in the air pollution. The report points out that China’s emissions of SO2 and soot were respectively 42 percent and 11 percent higher making it the largest polluter in the world. The report also points out that pollution of water, rivers, lakes has also increased to alarming levels. Water pollution is also a cause for serious concern and during 2001 and 2005, about 54 percent of the seven main rivers in China contained water deemed unsafe for human consumption. The report points out that the economic burden of premature mortality and morbidity due to air pollution was157.3 billion Yuan in 2003, or 1.16 percent of by WHO. The report suggests that pollution costs China more than 147 billion Yuan a year in the form of increased health related costs. A report from CBS news says â€Å"China’s air pollution seems like a problem just for that country, think again. The stuff spewing out in China has now been detected in the United States, and some suspect it’s beginning to affect the U.S. climate China’s far-reaching dust and soot cloud travelling to the West Coast hits Hawaii first, and that may be why temperatures in Hawaii are rising. A lot of early-computer modelling of Chinese pollution’s effects on the global climate is turning out to be just plain wrong. This is why a massive new study with ground and air monitoring across Asia starts next year† (Yinchaun, 31 March 2000). Following table shows the air quality in China Table 1. Trends in Air Quality in China’s Cities (%) (China, 2007) The following table shows the distribution of particulate matter in air Table 2. Distribution of PM10 and SO2 Levels in 341 Cities, 2003 and 2004 (China, 2007)   The list of pollutants that infect China re provided in the following table. Table 4. List of major pollutants and their categories (China, 2007)   Clare (Clare D’Souza, 2002) reports that â€Å"Energy consumption, especially coal consumption, is the main source of air pollutants such as particles, SO2, NOx, and CO in most cities of China. As the primary energy source, coal has accounted for about 65 to 70 percent (China Statistical Yearbook 2004) of total energy consumption in recent years, which has caused many environmental and human health problems. Crude oil consumption has been increasing because of the rapid expansion of the motor vehicle fleet in many cities. In recent years, epidemiological studies conducted around the world have demonstrated that there are close associations between air pollution and health outcomes. PM10 and SO2 are chosen in many studies as the indicative pollutants for evaluating the health effects of ambient air pollution. Although the mechanisms are not fully understood, epidemiological evidence suggests that outdoor air pollution is a contributing cause of morbidity and mortality. Epidemiological studies have found consistent and coherent associations between air pollution and various outcomes, including respiratory symptoms, reduced lung function, chronic bronchitis, and mortality†. The author suggests that industry â€Å"size† is controversial with respect to environmental issues. In some studies large enterprises have been deemed to be more pollution intensive in comparison with small enterprises. The author reports that small enterprises as being more environmentally friendly due to their size and found small plants to be far more pollution intensive because they are difficult and costly to regulate. Empirical research has suggested that enterprise size is inversely correlated with emissions intensity in developing countries. World Bank and other institutions have found that small enterprises are pollution intensive (Mani, 1997).   Karshenas (1992 author has pointed that the Winter’s (model of business and the environment may be a more appropriate way of approaching the problem. According to the author, â€Å"enterprises may not have mastered perfection in terms of ecological sustainability but enterprises can make a systematic assessment of the areas where improvements can be introduced. Although Winter goes beyond traditional management theory, the model emphasizes ecologically sound processes and practices right throughout a firm, from company policy, employee relations, supply chain, public relations and marketing. A firm should consider prevention, reduction, recycling and disposal of wastes throughout its operations. They should use sustainable inputs in environmentally friendly manufacturing processes that result in greener outputs (i.e. maintaining environmentally friendly processes for a product from cradle to grave). This would prove to be profitable, provided that the end users, be they industry or consumers, are committed to using green products. Ideally, enterprises should take control of their own operational structure by viewing cleaner manufacturing as a competitive and strategic challenge, they should resort to manufacturing life-cycle analysis, environmental auditing and environmental reporting. The reality is that an enterprise cannot consider making a product ecologically sound without considering how its raw material acquisition, development, manufacturing, distribution, sales and disposal systems impact on the environment. The author suggests that has gone one step further by stating that managers in a green venture start from a different mindset. They recognise that becoming green is an opportunity to establish a unique position in a niche market or, by being able to produce a higher value product with fewer resources, to gain a competitive advantage. He proposed a trisect by which sustainable business is based on the concept of balancing ecological, economic and social factors†..   Action to fight pollution   The government of China has redoubled its efforts in fighting pollution and has organized task forces at the local levels. The structure is shown in the following figure. Figure 1. Main Government Partners in the Project   The report has identified a number of measures to fight pollution and these are displayed in the following table. Table 4. Sectors and Pollutants Included in the CECM (China, 2007) The team has implemented certain steps to fight the pollution and these are illustrated in the following figure.   Figure 2. Flow Chart for Estimating the Economic Cost of Pollution (China, 2007)   The following steps have been proposed: Step 1: Identify the pollution factors, polluted area, and related conditions. Step 2: Determine affected endpoints and establish dose-response relationships for pollution damage. Step 3: Estimate population (or other) exposures in polluted areas. Step 4: Estimate physical impacts from pollution using information from steps 2 and 3. Step 5: Convert pollution impacts in physical terms to pollution costs in monetary terms. Indiscreet reaction by the Chinese government Wang (Wang Xiangwei. 4 Jun 4, 2007) reports that the Chinese government is paranoid about maintaining a good image about China, for fears that it may hurt its business stakes. The author reports that the most convenient way for China to control pollution is by jailing activists who point out the problems of pollution. The author reports about the village of Wuxi and how it was affected by pollution. â€Å"For hundreds of years, Wuxi , on the edge of Tai Lake, was the envy of the nation. In the heart of the Yangtze River delta and known as â€Å"the land of fish and rice†, it was bestowed with fertile land and abundant waterways, and was also home to famous poets, painters and industrialists. Since recently however, the city has become a stinking hell for its five million residents as a blue-green algal bloom from the heavily polluted lake contaminated the city’s tap water, making it foul-smelling and undrinkable. After scrambling for six days with emergency measures, Wuxi officials said yesterday the tap water was drinkable. But the residents, who have relied on bottled water for drinking and cooking, have every reason to be suspicious. Xinhua has reported that after the usual cleaning aids such as activated carbon failed to remove the odour, the city adopted what Mayor Mao Xiaoping called â€Å"a bold move† by pouring huge amounts of potassium permanganate (Condy’s crystals) into water-intake points. This allowed the strong oxidising agent to remove foul-smelling matter from the pipes. But Xinhua failed to explain that potassium permanganate is hazardous and can be a health risk. As the Wuxi officials brazenly claimed credit for winning the battle against the water crisis, none of them yet had the decency to apologise to the suffering residents. All of them have blamed factors beyond their control – higher- than-normal temperatures that helped to foster the growth of the algae, a lack of rain and favourable wind conditions, and the lowest water level in the lake in five decades. In fact, the fundamental cause of the crisis is the lake’s heavy pollution – as several mainland environmentalists have repeatedly warned the authorities in the past decade. Wu Lihong, 39, is one of them. He has spent large sums of his own money over the past 16 years collecting evidence of pollution at Tai Lake, the mainland’s thirdlargest freshwater lake, and petitioning the local authorities to shut down the polluters. Now, with a water crisis on its hands, one would imagine any government that claims to â€Å"put the people first† would give Wu a medal of honour and make him a hero. Instead, Wu, known as the Tai Lake anti-pollution warrior in overseas media, is languishing in jail and awaiting trial on June 12 on trumped-up charges of blackmail. A farmer turned businessman who grew up in Zhoutie town in Yixing – a small, booming industrial city under the jurisdiction of Wuxi – Wu witnessed the lake turn into a cesspit. He then made it a personal crusade to petition authorities to shut down more than 2,000 chemical factories in Yixing that spewed toxic pollutants into the lake every day. By passing the local bureaucracy and filing reports to higher- level government officials has led to limited success he is welcomed, even liked by many central government officials and national media in Beijing. In 2005, he was chosen as one of mainland’s top 10 environmentalists and honoured at a ceremony in the Great Hall of the People. But he incurred the wrath of local officials and has been constantly harassed by local policemen, officials and thugs. He was arrested again in April on charges of blackmail after the local officials set a trap for him. They offered him 40,000 yuan for a mission to attract investment from other mainland cities, and then laid charges of blackmailing the authorities. His lawyer, Zhu Xiaoyan , said that Wu had told her that he was whipped while in custody, and she was not allowed to see him until more than six weeks after his arrest. Like Gao Yaojie , a retired Henan doctor who refused to keep quiet about Aids, Wu has refused to stand down despite the threat of jail. The mainland leadership should learn from the fiasco of trying to muzzle Ms Gao and release Wu immediately†.(Wang Xiangwei. 4 Jun 4, 2007).   Conclusion Pollution in China has assumed the proportion of an epidemic with wide ramifications on the health of the people, the environment, air and water. The paper has presented discussed various aspects of the problem and presented statistics to show the extent of pollution. Certain recommendations have also been made so that the pollution could be averted and reduced to some extent. References China, 2007. Cost of Pollution in China. Retrieved 18 January 2008 from www.worldbank.org/eapenvironment. Clare D’Souza, 2002. The nexus between industrialization and environment. Journal of Environmental Management and Health. Volume 13 Number 1 2002 pp. 80-97 Karshenas, M (1992), â€Å"Environment development and employment: some conceptual issues†, in Bhalla, A.S (Eds),Environment Development and Employment, WEP Study, ILO, Geneva, Mani, M, Pargal, S, Huq, M (1997), â€Å"Does environmental regulation determine the location of new manufacturing?†, World Bank, Washington, DC, Policy Research Working Paper Wang Xiangwei. 4 Jun 4, 2007. Release the man who first raised the alarm about Tai Lake’s pollution China Briefing. South China Morning Post. Hong Kong. P. 5 Xinhua, 26 December 2006. China’s Energy Conditions and Policies. Xinhua News Agency – CEIS. p: 1 Yinchaun. 31 March 2000. A Global Problem: China’s Pollution. Retrieved 18 January 2008 from http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2000/03/31/archive/main178697.shtml